James Skemp's StrivingLife

“Man is born free; and everywhere he is in chains.” (Rousseau, Chapter I). Jean-Jacques Rousseau and The Social Contract had a large impact on Western Civilization in the late 18th century. Rousseau based his ideas on some of the writings of previous philosophers, trying to form a good political theory.

The Social Contract was developed by Jean-Jacques Rousseau around 1762, during the time of the scientific revolution and the Enlightenment. The Social Contract was based on the ideas of Baron de Montesquieu and John Locke. Rousseau was attempting to find a solution to the problems of individual rights and restrictions. He questions what will legitimatize the power masters have over others. Rousseau talks about both rule by the strongest individuals, or groups of individuals, and also discusses slavery.

Rousseau first discredits rule by the strongest. He states that “all power comes from God, I admit; but so does all sickness: does that mean that we are forbidden to call in the doctor?” (Rousseau, Chapter III). His point in saying this is that if the strongest is right, then, since God is the strongest, we should not go against his will and seek an end to an illness. Instead, we should accept it. Rousseau then states that rule by the strongest is not always the correct way to do things, and therefore a better way must exist.

Rousseau then goes on to talk about slavery, which in a way deals with his previous subject of rule by the strongest. He compares slavery with rule by a king, saying that individuals can alienate their freedom to a slave master, and that a group of individuals could do the same to a king. Rousseau tells us that “To alienate is to give or to sell” (Rousseau, Chapter IV). A slave sells himself to a master for protection and food, and in a way, people can sell or give themselves to a king for the same things. However, Rousseau tells us that kings also take individuals possessions as well, and eventually the people no longer have anything that they can call their own. At this time, and even before this, the upper class is taking a lot from the lower and middle class, in property, goods and services. Rousseau also tells us that no one can alienate another’s freedom, so therefore, people are born free to decide if they wish to join the compact.

Continuing with the attack of slavery, Rousseau then talks about war and how it relates to the state and the individual. He tells us that war is between to different societies or “...between State and State, and individuals are enemies only accidentally” (Rousseau, Chapter IV). Therefore, if someone surrenders to the opposing State, they can not be killed, since they are no longer part of their State and because no one can take away their freedom, or life. Since people can not be killed after they surrender, they also cannot be enslaved against their will. He talks about this to prove what he said earlier about rule of the strongest and how it cannot be.

Next Rousseau talks about the actual contract, and the problem that it must deal with. “The problem is to find a form of association which will defend and protect with the whole common force the person and goods of each associate, and in which each, while uniting himself with all, may still obey himself alone, and remain as free as before.” (Rousseau, Chapter VI). In other words, each person, and their goods or property, should be equally protected by all. Also, each person should still be free to choose what they wish to do, as long as it doesn’t go against the good of all. This makes sense since according to Rousseau, the Sovereign is made up of the people that formed the compact, and they will decide best for all.

Rousseau then talks about voting, and how it should not be drawn out in constant talks. He also tells us that fear will cause people to vote for those who hold power over them, once again attacking slavery. Rousseau also tells us that the majority wins in all votes, except for that which brings about the social compact, which needs to be chosen by all. If there is anyone who disagrees with the compact, then that doesn’t mean that it isn’t formed, rather that those who disagreed should leave, or follow the compact.

Next, Rousseau explains why the majority wins in debates. He tells us that upon formation of the compact, “This citizen gives his consent to all the laws, including those which are passed in spite of his opposition, and even those which punish him when he dares to break of them.” (Rousseau, Chapter II). Also that “When therefore the opinion that is contrary to my own prevails, this proves neither more nor less than that I was mistaken, and that what I thought to be the general will was not so.” (Rousseau, Chapter II).

The Social Contract has influenced western political institutions in a couple of ways. First of all, our view of slavery is similar to that of Rousseau’s, that people should not be enslaved against their will. Secondly, vote by the majority is popular as well, and we no longer are controlled by a king, but by the general will of all.

The Social Contract was a very important writing of it’s time. Not only did it have an influence when it was written, but it also has had an influence on some of today’s political policies and ideas.

Bibliography

Jean-Jacques Rousseau. The Social Contract: Extracts. 1762. UW Green Bay. July 1998, <http://www.uwgb.edu/ganyardc/493102/library/rousseau.htm>.

Dennis Sherman and Joyce Salisbury. The West in the World, volume II. McGraw-Hill: Boston, 2001.

Notes

Originally written as a mid-term for a Foundations of Western Culture 2 course.

Modified: May 12th 2005

My wise Gerousia,

You have told me to visit Athens and gather information on the Athenians. I have done so and am writing this report to try to describe to you Athenian society. I have many things to tell you about; their culture and politics, the personalities of the Athenians, Athenian “democracy”, and I want to tell you about Pericles and his “Funeral Oration”.

Upon my arrival, one of the first things I noticed was the size of Athens. I was told how large Athens is, but I took the stories to be lies. Now, however, I see that they spoke the truth.

Another thing I noticed almost instantly, was how much their culture differs from ours. They seem fascinated with art, as it is everywhere.

Athenian politics is truly frightening. Athenians believe that the ability to talk well is very important. Often times, people gather at law courts to hear the people speak. I was able to hear from one such person, whose name is Pericles, who made claims about Athens in his “Funeral Oration”. I will speak of that a little bit later.

Politics even governs the Athenian military. I found out that Athenian’s generals are pretty much, according to those I spoke to, professional politicians. Also alarming is the fact that the generals are elected each year. As I learn more and more about Athens, I see more and more problems with their society. Why don’t they allow their king to hold the position of general? It works for us in Sparta.

Athenians are very carefree. I was able to go to a symposium while in Athens after meeting a extremely carefree man. A symposium is a type of dinner party that a person holds. The person who has the party, or the host, usually sets up some kind of topic of the party. I didn’t really get into it very much, but I know the topic had something to do with one of their past king, and his politics. Once again, politics pops up. There was quite a bit of entertainment. There were drinking contests and they sang songs. During the party, I could tell that quite a few people were very drunk. In fact, one of the songs that they song, had to deal with one of the speakers that I had heard a couple days before, who had been speaking during one of the law cases. Another was about some political item, which I did not understand.

A few weeks after the party, I was able to witness an election. This election was not for a position, rather it was for who was going to have to leave Athens! After first hearing this, I laughed and passed it as another story. It turns out however that the upcoming election was indeed for who would be kicked out; for 10 years at that. After watching the voting process, and talking to a couple of slaves, I was able to find out a little bit more. To vote, each citizen takes a broken piece of pottery and writes an individuals name on it, and each citizen votes only once, no matter if they are a high citizen or low. After all the citizens have voted, they tally up the results. As long as over 6000 people voted, whoever has the most votes wins the anti-election. This time, it was one of the same people from the party that I had been to a few weeks before. In passing, I over heard someone mention his name and the name of the speaker who he made the drinking song about. It turns out that they believe the speaker set the man up. That would also explain why I saw one person vote approximately ten times.

I would now like to tell you about Pericles and his “Funeral Oration”. As I told you before, he is a speaker, and I good one at that, I am told by many Athenians. Pericles was chosen to speak about the Athenians who have fallen during the first year of our war against Athens. Even though we are currently ahead in the battle, Pericles spoke on how great Athens is. First Pericles spoke of the ancestors of the Athenians and the fathers of the currently living Athenians. He spoke on how brave they were. He also spoke of their government. Pericles also talks about the Athenians democracy. He calls their government a democracy, and then states that ‘the administration is in the hands of the many and not the few’, but then goes on to say that those citizens that are in some way distinguished from others, they are preferred to the public service. He says that is not a privilege, but a reward for merit. I don’t see how this is a democracy. A true democracy doesn’t allow some to be preferred over others. In a true democracy, every citizen is allowed an equal chance to be in a position.

A little later, he speaks that Athenians are not suspicious of each other and that they are not angry if someone does what they like. I question why the anti-election takes place then.

Pericles then talks about the Athenian military. He talks about how superior their military training is and that Athens is open to the world. How they don’t rely on trickery. He then attacks the Spartan way of military education. He speaks on how they live at ease, while we train our youth all the time. That only shows me that Athenians are lazy, not that they are better. He also tells how when they invade cities, that the Athenians are able to defeat them, even though they are fighting to protect their land.

Pericles then sums it up by saying that Athens is the school of Hellas. I doubt all cities watch Athens, why would we want to do as Athens does? Perhaps other cities would, but not us. Finally Pericles also says why he talked about Athens instead of the dead. He talked about Athens because he said that in magnifying the city he has magnified the dead.

My wise Gerousia, I hope that this report is able to describe to you about the state of Athens at this time. As soon as I have more information, I will send you another letter, or, if my being here is found out, I will come to you. So far however, I am confident in the fact that no one knows that I am a Spartan. Until we speak again.

Notes

Created: April 9th 2000
Modified: September 10th 2004
Notes: Only modifications to this document include cleaning up of style and any necessary spelling changes.